COMMUNICATION

Communicationis a dynamic process involving the passage of a message from a sender to a receiver through a channel and with noise interference. Message transmission is intentional and conveys a meaning in order to bring about a change. [Living things try to convey meaning to one another (and to oneself!)]

A process is an ongoing non-static activity.

A message is a signal/signals which serve as a stimulus for a receiver. (sign = naturally occurring; symbol = human convention).

A channel is the medium through which signals are sent,

Noise is anything which distorts the message either at source or at the receiver.

Ø       physical noise (noise interfering with the physical transmission of the message)

Ø       pyschological noise (biases, prejudices, narrow-mindedness; mainly due to upbringing but could be spiritual)

Ø       semantic noise (jargon, technical or complex terms)

Change refers to the influence on someone else’s behaviour or knowledge.

Westley and Maclean’s model of mass communication

This diagram represents mass communication where:

A = an event or an object(the ring surrounding A  is to show  that its essence, under the surface, is not 100% perceptible to the sender, C)

B = the means by which info regarding A reaches the observer (transmission could be visual or aural)

C = the sender who wants to present a particular view of A to E(the outer circle represents eyes, ears, etc picking up the info on A. The inner circle represents the decoding, by comparison with previously received impressions, of this sensed info)

D = the means by which the info reaches the audience E(sender C must arrange the info in a way in which E can understand it, and transmit it in a way that E can sense it)

E = the receiver(any person or thing that takes in messages)

F = the channel through which E could gain info about the event directly, bypassing the sender.

Noise – the process of communication could be disrupted in several ways:

1.       the sender’s perception of A could be inaccurate due to:

1.1   damage to the sensory organs

1.2   psychological or emotional damage to the decoding mechanism

1.3   spiritual forces interfering with the sender’s perception and interpretation of A

2.       the sender may inaccurately transmit information regarding A due to:

2.1  damage to the encoding mechanism

2.2  damage to the sending device (e.g. mouth, pencil, hand)

2.3  spiritual forces interfering with his/her transmission of info regarding A

1. INTRAPERSONAL – perception and communication that a person has with him- or herself internally
   • making sense of something – map-reading, texts, signs& signals
   • interpreting non-verbal communication – gestures, eye contact
   • interpreting the body’s desires – my stomach is telling me it’s time for lunch
   • speaking aloud, reading aloud, repeating things heard
   • writing one’s thoughts and observations, copying to aid memorising
   • making gestures while thinking
   • day-dreaming
   • dreaming
2. INTERPERSONAL – communication between two or a small group of people with some effect and some immediate feedback
   • non-linear: several factors which create a cyclical relationship between participants
   • the way in which we respond to each other as individuals: once communication has begun we reconsider our preconceptions of the others with the reality they reveal to us
   • everything involved in interpersonal communication is in a state of change
   • the source or sender is the person encoding (through language) an idea (from the brain)
   • the destination or receiver is the person decoding the stimulus (through sounds or reading) into meaning (in his/her brain) – this is the translation of ideas into messages

everybody both formulates and sends (sources) AND perceives and comprehends messages (receives)

for interpersonal communication to function there must be only a small group of people

·        the message is a signal that serves as a stimulus which must be decoded and

comprehended by the receiver.

·        messages can be auditory, visual, tactile, olfactory, gustatory

·        messages must travel along a channel – the means of transport to the receiver for the stimuli

produced by the source (air waves, telephone wires, etc)

·         peripherals are – noise, baggage, feedback: noise is anything which distorts or interferes with the message so that the message received is different from that which was sent (e.g. blurred typing, sunglasses, traffic, a lisp); baggage is pyschological interference (not normally apparent until disclosed on purpose or as the relationship develops); feedback can be divided into two forms – self feedback, our own handwriting or voice, and feedback which is the response to the original message

Hence, a vast amount of things occurs simultaneously during a conversation.

1. GROUP – communication between 3 – 15 people

A small group has 3 – 12/15 members. (Not 2, that would be a dyad) Any more than 12/15 members and communication between all members of the group would be inhibited. A group’s members must be able to interact freely and openly. Group members develop roles and the group sets norms about discussion. A group has a common purpose or goal which the members must work together to achieve. This common goal brings the members together and keeps them together through times of conflict.

People join groups for 3 different reasons:

i)                     group synergy: two heads are better than one, the whole is greater than the parts, groups produce better work than an individual working alone;

ii)                   support and commitment: a group may be more willing than an individual to take on a project, providing encouragement and support to each other;

iii)                  interpersonal needs: a person could join a group to satisfy his interpersonal needs – inclusion, control, affection.

Groups form to achieve a goal, which could either be to achieve an objective or to promote interpersonal relationships or a mixture of the two. There are 3 kinds of groups:

i)                     social groups – families, social clubs. Give safety and solidarity & help to develop self-esteem.

ii)                   work groups – workplaces, campus organisations, juries. Function to complete a particular task, with group members sharing their experience to complete the task

• additive work group (members do the same thing & pool their results, eg a petition)
• conjunctive work group(members do different but connected tasks towards a common goal, eg an assembly line)
• disjunctive tasks (members agree on the best alternative: 1. Judgement tasks – one correct answer is chosen from all alternatives; 2. Decision-making tasks – chose the best alternative from the options, but there is no one correct answer

iii)                  contrived/emergent groups – groups of friends, organised clubs, social groups, committees

Groups evolve following a similar progression (Tubbs’ Small Group Development theory):

i)                     Orientation – group members get to know each other, start to talk about the problem

ii)                   Conflict – a necessary part of a group’s development, it lets the group evaluate ideas and avoids groupthink

iii)                  Consensus – signals the end of conflict. Group members compromise, select ideas, agree on alternatives

iv)                  Closure – the final result is announced, group members reaffirm their support of the decision

Many groups form to solve problems/make decisions. How can they do this?

i)                     standard agenda (developed by John Dewey); reflective thinking with a careful systematic approach

·         problem identification

·         problem analysis

·         criteria selection

·         solution generation

·         solution evaluation and criteria

·         solution implementation

ii)                   brainstorming

iii)                  nominal group technique; this involves the group individually ranking a set of options in priority with a group facilitator computing an average score for each. The lowest score is the highest priority for the group. This is a good way of preventing the most talkative group members dominating discussion.

The final decision can be made

i)                     consensus – everyone agrees on the final decision thanks to discussion and debate

ii)                   compromise – an agreement is reached because the group members give up some of their demands

iii)                  majority vote – the decision is reached on the opinion of the majority

Groups can fall into a state known as groupthink which leads to faulty decision making. When a group experiences groupthink they do not consider all the alternatives but just want a unanimous decision at all costs.

i)                     when a group is highly cohesive and under considerable pressure this leads to groupthink

ii)                   negative outcomes are:

Ø       examining a limited number of alternatives

Ø       not being critical of each other’s ideas

Ø       not examining early alternatives

Ø       not seeking expert opinion

Ø       being highly selective when gathering information

Ø       not having contingency plans

iii)                  symptoms of groupthink are:

Ø       thinking to be invulnerable

Ø       rationalising poor decisions

Ø       believing in the group’s morality

Ø       sharing the stereotypes guiding the decision

Ø       applying direct pressure on others

Ø       not expressing true feelings

Ø       maintaining an illusion of being in total agreement

Ø       not exposing the group to negative information

iv)                  solutions:

Ø       use a policy-forming group which reports to the whole group

Ø       leaders must be impartial

Ø       use different policy groups for different tasks

Ø       divide into smaller groups and discuss differences

Ø       divide into smaller groups and report back

Ø       use outside experts

Ø       use a Devil’s Advocate

Ø       have a “second-chance” meeting to have one more opportunity to choose different action

Leadership is control and power within a group. Leaders must maintain the interpersonal relationships in a group and encourage a group to perform its task. There can be 2 leaders – one for social and one for task leadership. There are 3 perspectives on leadership:

i)                     born leaders

ii)                   leaders who select a certain style for each job ( autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, abdacratic

iii)                  contextual leaders: the situation, personalities of group members, pressures and rules determine leadership

Group strategies: a strategy is the deliberate use of verbal/non-verbal signs to persuade, approve/disapprove, make excuses, avoid people/problems. There are strategies for starting and finishing conversations, interrupting, keeping conversation going and changing its direction. The expressions used are called conversation strategies. Strategies used to exert power over others are called games (life, marital, party, etc) – a set of transactions, often repetitive, superficially plausible with concealed motivation leading to a well-defined predictable outcome.

Perception of self: we present different personalities in different situations, leading us to have different perceptions of ourselves. Labels (daughter, wife, supervisor for eg) cause us to adopt a persona to go with that role.

Communication skills: making contact with others, using strategies effectively, presenting yourself effectively. Any communication between two people is shaped by the relationship which exists between them.

Social Situations: formal/informal; public/private;distant/intimate; ritual/open; functional/expressive.

Roles in groups: every member of a group plays a role in the group. There are three types of role: task-orientated (initiator-contributor, information-seeker, opinion-seeker, etc), social (encourager, harmoniser, follower, etc) and individualistic, which are self-centred and destructive for the group (aggressor, blocker, recognition seeker, etc).

Conflict in groups: conflict can be good for a group when it is managed correctly. By speaking about differences quality decisions and satisfying interpersonal relations can be made. First conflict must be identified, then it must be managed. There are 5 styles for managing conflict: competitive, accommodative,avoiding, collaborative and compromising. The climate in which a conflict is managed could be defensive (better avoided) or supportive (to be encouraged). Defensive climates are characterised by the following qualities: evaluation, control, strategy, neutrality, superiority and certainty. Supportive climates are characterised by the following qualities: description, problem orientation, spontaneity, empathy, equality and provisionalism.

Mediated groups: groups holding meetings on-line (computer-mediated), by video (videoconferences) or on the phone (teleconferences). Mediated groups are inexpensive (no more travel expenses!) and can carry on business over time without everyone having to be present at the same time. However, it is also difficult to judge non-verbal expressions, some people feel uncomfortable with the technology and the social aspects of the group are lost when members don’t meet face-to-face.

Group meetings: are often dreaded by group members as they can lack focus and seem to be non-productive. If planned and carried out properly though they can be a great asset.

i)                     preparation: give enough notice, identify a purpose, invite only relevant people, distribute an agenda before the meeting, set start, break and stop times, set deadlines for follow up.

ii)                   during the meeting: start and finish on time, use Robert’s Rules of Order, give someone the responsability of taking notes and writing the minutes, use a discussion model, standard agenda and nominal group technique.

iii)                  behaviour to avoid: unnecessary meetings, inviting everyone, letting anyone dominate the discussion, allowing the discussion to go off the point, not acting on decisions made.

ORGANIZATIONAL

COMMUNICATION

An organisation is a group with specific characteristics:

i)                    it is deliberately established at a certain time

ii)                  there are formally structured relationships and interdependence between people in the organisation

iii)                it has set objectives which can be both obvious e.g. a business producing products or services, a school enabling students to learn; and hidden e.g. health care in the USA is inefficient but profitable

iv)                it divides the work to be done between individuals, groups, systems & sub-systems, e.g. in a school there are – teachers, administrative staff, cleaning staff, non-teaching assistants

v)                  it tries to manage resources, both physical and human, efficiently and effectively

vi)                there is effective communication both within the organisation and between the organisation and others.

The ability to organize, whether in an enormous multi-national company or a two-person company always depends on effective communication. Think about two people lifting a table. They can only do it if they co-ordinate the job by communicating.

The traditional shape of organizational structures is a pyramid. Think of the head of a school as being at the top of a pyramid, but he must then report to other authorities – the Education Authority, School Governors, examination boards, publishers, suppliers, trade unions, parents.

Hierarchical models are concerned with power, status & control. Effective organisations look for lateral as well as vertical lines of communication. Work is divided into units & sub-systems (e.g. in a company: R&D, HR, purchasing, administration, marketing, sales, etc) Lines of communication go up, down, sideways and diagonally.

Generally people don’t like to make contact with people higher up, but they will form contacts with people of the same status. However social contact can cut across the hierarchy (lunchtime, at the coffee machine, sports clubs) but in some cases if you are friendly with the boss other people will not speak freely to you.

A co-operative structure, where jobs are interchangeable, is an alternative to a hierarchical one.

Organisations are formed by different groups so there will be a formal structure with work teams, but informal groups develop from these as people working closely together become friends. A department which becomes a group of friends gives channels of communication for the company outside work.

Networks of communication The networks which are possible between 5 entities A, B, C, D, E (these could be people, departments, units, etc) are:

linear or chain network: C has an important position as is always in the middle of communication

pyramid network: strictly hierarchical chain of command (but some sideways/diagonal communication always takes place)

circle network: no person/unit holds a dominant position and can only communicate with 2 others

cross network: A has the dominant position and co-ordinates the system

wheel network: A is pivotal and is a co-ordinator (manager)

Y-shape network: A is a filter and focus for communication

Teams and roles Work teams are groups formed by the organisation (not voluntarily by individuals). Functional roles are assigned to them, but this gives opportunity for conflict e.g. differences of opinion about status.

Example – a quality circle group is formed of people who would not normally meet each other to discuss customer care. In this situation the receptionist is as important as the manager, but can they forget their status and communicate effectively? Also the qualities which make them good for their job are not necessarily good for the role they have in the team. REMEMBER: giving a job title to a person does not make them able to do that job. Putting people together in teams does not make them good team members.

In a successful group there are some team roles – e.g. a “chairperson” is good at co-ordinating and working with others, a “finisher” is good at details and deadlines – which complement each other.

Conflict A breakdown in communication is the usual reason for conflict; but it can also be because of real differences of interest, attitudes, beliefs and values. The origins of conflict are:

i)                    personal – within an individual, eg frustration, conflict in personal inclinations with expectations of the role occupied

ii)                  interpersonal – differences of experience, perceptions, opinions, values and behaviour patterns, and competition between people

iii)                the organization itself – different parts of an organization can perceive differences in status and power in the hierarchy in opposite ways

If two sides in a conflict are only interested in winning it cannont be managed, but if they want to tackle the problem, both sides can “win”. Being able to face conflict requires communication abilities and being able to relate to people. Understanding non-verbal & verbal communication, how groups work and how we perceive each other helps us in relationships; and the quality of relationships is a key factor in organizations.

Wanting to trust, listen, use and accept diofferent communication styles and roles adapted to the situation are necessary for effective communication.

Mistrust, being defensive, only listening to your own ideas, always using the same communication style in every situation  lead to communication breakdown.

Communication

It is the process or act of transmitting a message from a sender to a receiver, through a channel and with the interference of noise .

• Process is a series of action or a continuum of what.(explain).
• Sender  the subject who sends the message
• Receiver  the subject who receives the message
• Message may be either a sign or a symbol. (different types of message)
• Channel is the vehicle or medium through which signal are sent
• Noise is anything that distorts the message intended by the source .

There are three types of noise

• Noise interferes  with the physical transmission of the message (es. Cars screeching or sunglasses)
• Psychological Noise  include biases and prejudices that can warp (distorsione)  the message ,  (es. Close mindedness) chiusura mentale
• Semantic noise  the interference is due to the receiver failing to grasp (significato)the meanings intended by the sender (es. use of technical term)

                Sender     encode message                Channel         décode message         receiver                                                                          (noise)                                                    feedbackmodello di Shannon e weaver’s who                                                    a senderswhat                                                    directs a messagewith                                                     through some form/mediumwhom                                                  to a receiverwhat effect                                          with some effect 1)Verbal  communication2)Not verbal communication divided into different aspects (body language, paralanguage and dress),·        body language have  generally five basic groupings (gesture, facial expression, body posture, body space or proximity and touch)·        paralanguage is the use of manner of speaking to communicate particular meanings. Is made up of non verbal sign, not word sign that accompany our  speech·        dress this visual sign give to us a good idea of a person character, role, status and profession. Dress signal a personal identity that the individuals want to communicate whether it be professional or acquired/selected3)non verbal behaviour  happens without our conscious control like blushing, sweating, twitching, flinching. In other word is  any action that person unconsciously makes than other people may assign a meaning to.  

1) Intrapersonal communication

 It is communication that  a person has with him or herself. It Includes :·        sense making,·        interpreting non verbal-communication, ·        speaking aloud , ·        writing one’s thoughts or observation.·        Making gesture while thinking ·        Day and nocturnal dreaming  

2) Interpersonal communication

 It is the process of sending and receiving message between  two persons , or among a small group of persons, with some effect and some immediate feedback. The various elements involved  in I. C. are :

• the participants : the interaction involves at least   two persons that constantly change the role, each person formulates and sends the message (sender), and also perceives and comprehends the message (receiver)
• the message  : can be auditory, visual, tactile, olfactory, gustatory or any combination of these and  travels though  a channel
• noise   : is anything that distorts or interferes with the message
• baggage is the psychological interference
• feedback  comes in two forms :
  • self feedback are the elements that we hear as part of our message delivery
  • the sender are the confirmation that receiver has interpreted the initial message in the correct way

3) Group Communication

Small groups having at last 3 but no more of 12 or 15 member The most characteristic of group communication  is that they work together that achieve  a common goal.There are various types of groups :Social group  this group provide for our safety and solidarity needs and they help us developed self-esteem (family, social groups) Works group    his function to complete a particular task, the group member pool their expertise to accomplish the task (additive work groups, conjunctive w.g., disjunctive task) Contrived or emergent groups when the groups form spontaneously such as a group of friends, or when are formed for a specific purpose (es. Club)    Decision making LeadershipGroup strategies roles and conflict in group Mediated groupGroup meeting
4) Organizational communicationThe word organization can refer to an institution such as a school, factory, office…We use this term to mean a collection of individuals who have been brought together to carry out a task in order to achieve common goal.( is a type of group)  An organization is  a group that has specific characteristics :            It is  deliberately established at a certain time by an individuals or group of people            It has set several objectives which its member seek to achieve            It develops a formal structure  relationships and interdependence between it’s member            It allocates the task among its member  (system and sub-system) 

An order to achieve its goal any organization has to structure the communication among single individuals, group of individuals, and also the communication with the organization

The structure changed  depending on the :

            Size of organization , kinds of company…

 There are different way to represented the structure and relationship network  of the organization: 

• Linear chain Network :  very constrained network,  the message is to be conveyed from A to D and it must go via   B—C so the structure is a  b  c  d

• Pyramid network : a strictly hierarchical chain of command, when A is a director, that gives and receives information from regional area and branch offices. The communication is  vertical

• Circle network : no person or unit holds the dominant position but each can only communicate with two other

• Cross network : “A” clearly holds the dominant position and is best able to co-ordinate the whole system. A is he only person that communicating with other members

• Wheel network :  “A” represent the central pivotal position , are responsible for other subordinate departments

• Y shape network : “A” represents a filter and the focus for communication

 Within a team there are different roles for each single member   The main cause of conflict  is a ”breakdown in communication”, due to misunderstanding, mistrust , difference  of interests, difference of attitudes ecc. between  persons. Tree kinds of conflicts may arise in a team:

• Personal  : within an individual there are conflicting ideas, desires, values, andconflict of roles
• Interpersonal : difference of experience, perceptions, opinion, values and patterns of behaviour between people
• In the organization itself : when  differences in status and power in hierarchy are not mutually accepted

Public relation

The label Public Relation encompassed :

• Research
• Strategy planning : defining each target audience,  marketing objectives for that group, and the message  supporting of marketing objectives
• Publicity  : getting visibility for your products , the company and the owners in the press  and in broadcast media.
• Community relation
• Government relation : relationship with local governments
• Internal relation :
• Investor relation
• Stakeholder relation
• Charitable causes : when the company donates money for charities the PR can help get maximum publicity for the company’s goodwill
• Communication training   the PR spend a lot of time coaching senior executives in dealing with the media and other communication skill

(stakeholder is anyone or any organization that holds a stake in your company) 

Once the audit is complete it is important  to define or identify

the key message you want  to communicate,

the marketing objective( what’s the end ultimate objective ?)

who is the audience of your key message( end user or the channel of distribution, is local, regional national or global ?)

 Hiring a professional helps an external PR can be hired from  :

• An advertising agency, provides a wide range of communication services (copyright, art, production, media planning and buying, market research, sales promotion, ad public relation
• A public relation agency :  professionals help you  get coverage in the media. In this agency we can find PR specialists, experts in writing, planning, timing and executing publicity campaigns,
• A graphic design studios : have they expertise in designing and producing printed materials
• A freelancer :  creative person with high skill in the area of promotion. He/she normally works for both advertisers and advertising agencies

 Newsletter  A periodically published work containing news and announcements on some subject, typically with a small circulation. Newsletters are a common application for {DTP} and may be distributed by {electronic mail}.Press releases  is a document that is written up to explain a new product or event it is a summary of what the company wants to communicate to the press. Are a mini articles that are sent to the media and include contact information (company name or  name of the editor) release date, headlines, body (what you want  the media to know about your product) response  information (the person who  provided additional information on the product or service)  There are several options to deliver a message           

Meeting the Press   if you are immediately available with the journalist for an interview, you have a good chance of being quoted or covered in the story            Analyst meeting            

Media tour  involves  sending  a company or product spoken person on the road to talk about or demonstrate a product to local media in different city            

Press conference it is an organized meeting when you invite print and broadcast journalists from various media outlets to a central location  to announce an important story to allow an immediate feedback and clarification of the information           

Press reception  we have the elements of press  release and press conference and a third element of presenting the product and giving he journalist a chance to see and sometimes to try the product, the four and further step would be to hold a company visit where the journalist to see how the product is made.  Desk side briefing  you or your expert of spoken person, visit journalist individually at their office for conversation or interviews   .you take the press conference to the journalist.
 

“MASS COMMUNICATION” Concept of “mass communication” Three basic elements describe the concept of “mass communication”: -        

system: the organization that “communicates”; -        

product: the “content” carried by the system; -        

audience: people “reached” by the system;  

Media Products Key elements that describe the concept of “media product” are:

Products: the term “product” underlines that the system is a “media manufacturer” that produces goods which are “bought” by the audience as “consumers”.

Texts: all media products may be described as a “text”. For example, an audio – like a song – can be described as an “oral text”, while a video – like an image – can be described as a written text.  

Mediation: the “mediation” is the transformation of the original product through the media. In other words, when a media product is being brought to the audience, it changes.

Realism: what the media show us, is true, by definition.

Media Language: media may be described by specialized language, spoken and visual.  

Narrative: the term “narrative” summarizes all the different parts that – combined – structure the text. Text is usually divided into the “plot”, “drama”, “conflict and resolution”, “closure”. More in detail, the story line (plot) establishes a problem for the characters and develops conflict that will either be resolved or not. The drama works up to the climax of excitement. When a narrative wraps up everything at the end, it is said to have a closure.

Ownership, Finance, Control: media of mass communication are owned by corporations and they are run as a businesses. Selection and Construction: “selection and construction” is the process of making a text. The text is a series of pieces put together through a series of decisions regarding length and timing of each piece.

Media Audience: the “audience” consists of those who view, read and listen to the media.

Denotation and Connotation: the distinction between “denotation” and “connotation” operates at the level of the signified of the language. Denotation describes the literal, obvious, commonsense meaning of a word. The term connotation, is used to refer  to the socio-cultural and personal association (emotional) of the word.

Concept of “mass media” Mass media denote the class of means of dissemination of fact, opinion and entertainment specifically designed to reach a very large audience. For example, mass media are newspapers, magazines, radio, television, cinema films and world wide web. Mass media is the term used to denote, as a class, that section of the media that has been specifically conceived and designed to reach a very large audience, as we have mentioned earlier.Mass media can be divided between “print media” and “electronic media”.   

The press  

1) “Newspapers” hold articles that inform, entertain, convince, teach the audience. A newspaper is divided into sections such as front page, back page, crime, sports, culture, arts, entertainment, business, science, health, cartoons, opinions, weather forecast, horoscope, etc. Newspapers come out in daily editions.

2) “Magazines” are  periodical publications containing a variety of articles on various subjects. They usually come out weekly, monthly, quarterly or annually. The portion of the newspaper that is not advertising is called “editorial content” or “editorial matter”. Both, newspapers and magazines make almost all their money from advertising. The income from customers’ payment at the newsstand is minimal in comparison. Newspapers and magazines work for higher circulation so that advertising becomes more effective, allowing them to attract more advertisers and charge more for the service.

3) An academic periodical featuring scholarly articles, written in a more specialist register, is usually called a “journal”. There are four types of journal articles: -        

letters: short (1-2 pages) descriptions of current research findings. -        

 articles: complete descriptions (5-20 pages) of current research findings. -        

supplemental articles: articles containing tabular data, that is the result of current research. -          

review articles: articles not covering a specific research but overviews of current researches on a particular topic.  

Television and radio Both, television and radio may be defined as broadcasts. There are many different kinds of TV and radio programs. “Television” is a telecommunication system for broadcasting and receiving moving pictures and sound over a distance. TV is another important channel for advertising. “Radio” is a technology that allows the transmission of signals by modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of light.

The difference of mass communication and mass media is the fact the former is a message that reaches a large group/uncountable mass of people originating from a single source; the latter is a message that is sent to a large group/uncountable mass of people through a form of media/material support from a single sender

History of internet …

• During the cold war , the U.S. military was concerned that the nuclear attack would destroy vital communication. That began to design a communication system based on computer that would be resistant damage by nuclear weapons..
• 1969 Arpanet  was established  by a group of university and private research group founded by the U.S. department of defence 12 side across the USA where linked together in a network ach with computers programmed to relay a message
• 1970 the network could be uses for non military communication. The idea of internet an international network development
• 1982 was created a common addressing system communication protocol called TCP/IP, and was made a more rapid expansion of internet
• 1990 the explosive growth in the sales of personal computers made the internet accessible to more and more people. Commercial organization began to see a business opportunity, and used the web for advertising and sales
• the introduction of internet of a feature called w.w.w. in 1991 made it possible to include graphic, animation, video and sound.
• Although at first the vast majority of internet users where the USA, by the year 2000 familiarity with the medium had spread all around the world

  Definition : 

• Internet is an electronic communication network that connects computer networks and organizational computer facilities around the world.
• The World Wide Web is part of internet deigned to allow easier navigation of the network through the use of graphical user interfaces and hypertext links between different addresses – called also WEB
• Basic term
  • Hypertext   a collection of documents containing "links" which, with the aid of an interactive  browser  program, allow the reader to move easily from one document to another.
  • Browser  is the interface to the World Wide Web; it interprets hypertext links and lets you view sites and navigate from one Internet node to another.
  • Computer is a device or machine for making calculation or controlling operation that are expressible in numerical or logical terms. It is constructed by components whose complex interactions give computers the ability to process information .
    • Monitor, keyboard ,mouse, memory card, storage, printers, modem....
  • Computer science is the discipline studying the theory, the design, and the application of computers
• Blog, is a frequently updated website consisting of dated entries sorted in reverse chronological order so the most recent post appears first. Typically, web logs are published by individuals and their style is personal and informal. (considered by the author as modern coffee house) (different by chart  that is interactive)
• Coffeehouses  the old Viennese coffeehouses served as the centre for public intellectuals discourse in the early 20^th century. In the C. writers, thinkers and other intellectuals read the papers and discussed the issue of the day. Each C. served different clienteles and they have own specific specialization

 Use of internet and web siteInternet specialists talk about the three C’s for the e-business : 

• Commerce refers to the web side’s ability to permit the consumer to buy on-line
• Content      refers to the information and service available on the web site
• Community  refers the relationship that users have with the web site and among each other, there are many kinds of communities :
  • internet community that serves as marketing and advertising tool
  • extranet community designed to strengthen relationship with trade partners or consumers
  • intranet communities that facilitate knowledge sharing within an organization
  • chat room and forum  can help build this sense of community

 Advertising  (attivita - The activity of creating advertisementAdvertise (verbo pubblicizzare)to tell people about a product and encourage them to buy it Advertisement (ad) announcement in a newspaper, on television or on poster about something such a product or service or eventAds should be thought of  as a contribution to the brand image. So they should consistently project the same image year after year.An Ad is composed of :

• Headline
• Illustrations
• Body copy
• Layout
• typography

  Sales promotionManufacturers or dealers to increase the sale of their products, several way adopt the  incentives These incentives may be in the form of free samples, gift, discount coupons, demonstrations, shows, contests ecc. All these measures normally motivate the customer to buy more and thus, it increases sales of product.This approach of selling good is known as Sales PromotionSales Promotions can take two forms:Advertising is directed toward a large number of potential customers, it used as means of communication to inform potential customer about the incentive offered for s.p.Personal selling involves face to face contact with specific individuals For manufacturers the main objectives of sale promotion is to increase sales by giving an incentive, but sometimes there are other objectives : 

To Launch a new product           

To attract new customers           

To meet  a competitor’s challenge           

To maintain sales of seasonal products Sales promotions are important for consumers because the latter            

Get products at a lower unit price           

Get all the information about the quality           

Receive additional in-kind benefits Visual Metaphor  involve a function of transference transferring certain qualities from one sign to another  for instance a shot of aeroplane followed by a shot of a bird flying would be metaphorical implying that the aeroplane is, or is like, a birdVerbal metaphor ..There are several kinds of metaphor           

Orientational : primarily relating to spatial organization           

Ontological   : which associate activities emotion and idea with entity and substance           

Structural    : overarching metaphors with allows us to structure one concept in terms of another (rational argument is war or times is a resource)its    

Business letteres 9

 Resume or C.V.They are different form the length , the content and purpose

• Resume is a one or two page summary of your skill, experience and education. A goal of resume writing is to be brief and concise since, at best, the resume reader will spend a minute or so reviewing your qualification . it is a self promotional document that presented you in best possible light, for th purpose of getting invited to a job interview
• C.V. is a longer, more detailed synopsis. It included a summary of your educational and academy background as well as teaching and research experience, publication, presentation award, honour, affiliation and other details